Issues in Social Science Research

Physical sciences like chemistry, physics, geology, and biology have never had serious problems with method. The social sciences, by contrast, have been bedevilled with problems. From a TOP perspective, the source of problems lies in a failure to recognize the nature of personal functioning and the qualities of experience.

2 Distinctions x 2 Dimensions

Common research distinctions, like qualitative v quantitative, subjective v objective, anecdotal v systematic, are rather superficial but point to something significant.

The deeper picture emerges from recognizing the importance of the objective v subjective distinction in inquiry, and applying these distinctions to inquiry's two dimensions: the focus (or object-world) and the style (i.e. researcher orientation).

Dimension #1: Focus of Inquiry

This distinction is between empirical (social) reality and psycho-social reality as previously explained.
ClosedClick here for a quick reminder:

Empirical reality refers to an impersonal social reality that exists independently of any single scientist and any other person relevant to the inquiry. This reality is viewed as objective and unchangeable within the temporal focus of the study. It will have been created and sustained in some way by human activities—either deliberately, instinctively, or as side-effects of endeavours.
Examples: Closed
(1) «Culture» as a stable complex social environment within which people function.
(2) Differential occupational choices relating to socio-economic class.
(3) Patterns of people walking in a particular park on Sundays.

Psychosocial reality refers to the reality that any particular person creates, calls their own and can, in principle, know about directly. It is the subjective reality that is created and sustained by the unique choices we each make with others. It forms the living context within which future choices are made to sustain or alter that reality. Fundamental assumptions intrinsic to creating this reality include: autonomy (free will within limits), responsibility, reflective awareness.

Dimension #2: Style of Inquiry

This distinction is between objectivist and subjectivist styles.

2x2 Table of "Orientation of Investigator" versus "Reality Investigated"

Objectivist refers to studies that are as close to the paradigm of natural sciences as possible.
ClosedIts qualities and values include:

Subjectivist refers to studies that require an understanding of meaning: the feature unique to human activity.
ClosedIts qualities and values include:

Of course, these two approaches to inquiry must have certain things in common Closede.g. they are both oriented to what is the case, they may both use qualitative methods, they both value precision, and they both would expect and wish their findings to have some practical relevance.

Four Preferences in Social Science

If we create a 2x2 Table with the focus of inquiry («world to be investigated») as the X-axis and the style of inquiry («orientation of the investigator»)  as the Y-axis, there are then four quadrants with 4 distinct varieties of inquiry as shown.

Objectivist study of Empirical reality in Lower-Left Quadrant

Social science inquiries here seek to be as similar to natural science as possible: i.e. sharing similar rationales, goals, methods and aspirations.

Placing social science disciplines and studies on the subjective/objective orientation versus focus on empirical or psychosocial reality.

The investigator selects the area of study, generates falsifiable hypotheses that are tested in controlled ways, and slowly builds theories that have the potential to offer socio-behavioural predictions. Appropriate statistical analyses are seen as essential to determine confidence levels for any given result.

Subjectivist study of Empirical reality in Upper-Left Quadrant

Social science inquiries here analyse a deliberately selected part of given or existing social situations, policies and structures, societal context or cultural identity.

The analytic output is openly acknowledged to be coloured by the values and perspective brought by the inquirer.

Only the announcement of bias (e.g. «Marxist» analysis, «psychoanalytic» critique) and the systematic, coherent and consistent structure of the argument distinguish the output from «just another opinion».

Subjectivist study of Psychosocial reality in Upper-Right Quadrant

Differences in the output of investigations using the 2x2 Table based on the subjective or objective orientation of the investor versus focus on empirical or psychosocial reality.

Social science inquiries here are participative in nature and lead to findings unique to the particular person, group or situation. The subjectivist investigator seeks to engage directly with the meanings, values and choices determining the reality of the object of inquiry (i.e. the subject: be it person or group). Outputs of such study are observations, taken to be factual. Labels vary: in general, «case studies»; in organizations, «action research»; in therapy, «clinical studies»; in welfare, «community work»; in society, «liberation studies».

The investigator openly acknowledges that any inquiry is an intervention. Changes in psychosocial reality are expected, so ethical considerations are uppermost. Willing participation of both the inquirer and the inquiree becomes justified by goals like emancipation, development, growth or healing. It is a characteristic of this quadrant that benefit is uncertain in both its nature and extent, and specific guarantees or predictions are not possible.

Objectivist study of Psychosocial reality in Lower-Right Quadrant

Differences in the development of knowledge using the 2x2 Table based on the subjective or objective orientation of the investor versus focus on empirical or psychosocial reality.

Social science inquiries here seek to identify the psychosocial reality created by any and all individuals or groups of a particular class or type.

The output will be a generalized «structure of meaning» that is independent of the particular investigator. It can be shared, criticized, corrected, tested in practice, refined and improved. If it emerges from enabling change (i.e. inquiry in the upper right quadrant) it may be labeled «grounded theory», «practice-based theory», «field theory» or «clinical theory».

This quadrant includes: ethnography (stemming from cultural anthropology), phenomenology (originating in both psychology and sociology), and praxeology (exemplified by von Mises in economics). THEE is a taxonomy developed using praxeological, phenomenological and ethnographic principles. It initially drew heavily on observations from participative inquiry aimed at healing and development—in the upper right quadrant.

Originally posted: 10-Apr-2015.